IL SAHEL ALLA RICERCA DELLA SOVRANITÀ

Note

[1]    Autorità del Liptako-Gourma, Carta del Liptako-Gourma che istituisce l’Alleanza degli Stati del Sahel, settembre 2023, https://maliembassy.us/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/LIPTAKO-GOURMA-Engl___-2.pdf, 2.

[2]    Autorità di Liptako-Gourma, Carta di Liptako-Gourma, 3.

[3]    Comunicato congiunto del Burkina Faso, della Repubblica del Mali e della Repubblica del Niger: I tre paesi decidono di ritirarsi immediatamente dall’ECOWAS, 28 gennaio 2024, pubblicato su Le Sahel. Consultato il 14 luglio https://www.lesahel.org/communique-conjoint-du-burkina-faso-de-la-republique-du-mali-et-de-la-republique-du-niger-les-trois-pays-decident-de-leur-retrait-sans-delai-de-la-cedeao/, traduzione nostra.

[4]    R. I. Onwuka, ‘The ECOWAS Treaty: Inching Towards Implementation’, The World Today 36, n. 2 (1980): 52, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40395168.

[5]    Onwuka, ‘The ECOWAS Treaty’, 52.

[6]    ‘La Francia deve andarsene dall’Africa è lo slogan del momento’, Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research, consultato il 7 luglio 2025, https://poterealpopolo.org/sahel-sovranita/; Vijay Prashad, “The Sahel stands up and the world must pay attention”, People’s Dispatch, consultato il 7 luglio 2025, https://peoplesdispatch.org/2024/07/08/the-sahel-stands-up-and-the-world-must-pay-attention/.

[7]    ‘A Splinter in the Sahel: Can the Divorce with ECOWAS Be Averted?’, Crisis Group, 5 dicembre 2024, https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/sahel/burkina-faso-mali-niger/splinter-sahel-can-divorce-ecowas-be-averted; Beverly Ochieng, ‘Will the Sahel Military Alliance Further Fragment ECOWAS?’, Center for Strategic & International Studies, 15 febbraio 2024, https://www.csis.org/analysis/will-sahel-military-alliance-further-fragment-ecowas; Matthew Edds-Reitman and Rachel Yeboah Boakye, ‘Sahel Coup Regime’s Split from ECOWAS Risks Instability in Coastal West Africa’, United States Institute of Peace, consultato il 25 dicembre 2024, https://www.usip.org/publications/2024/10/sahel-coup-regimes-split-ecowas-risks-instability-coastal-west-africa.

[8]    World Bank, ‘Population, Total – Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger’, World Development Indicators, consultato il 12 giugno 2025, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=BF-ML-NE.

[9]    World Bank, ‘Population, Total – Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger’, World Development Indicators, consultato il 12 giugno 2025, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=BF-ML-NE.

[10]    Sarah Jean Zimmerman, Living Beyond Boundaries: West African Servicemen in French Colonial Conflicts, 1908–1962 (UC Berkeley, 2011), https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4x19q2xb.

[11]    Mamane Sani Adamou, dell’Organizzazione Rivoluzionaria per una Nuova Democrazia (ORDN) – Tarmouwa, intervista inedita di Mikaela Nhondo Erskog, 9 settembre 2024.

[12]    Rahmane Idrissa, ‘Hot Water’, London Review of Books Blog, 9 April 2021, https://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/2021/april/hot-water; Klaas Van Walraven, ‘Decolonisation by Re1erendum: The Anomaly of Niger and the Fall of Sawaba, 1958–1959’, The Journal of African History 50, no. 2 (2009): 269-292, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021853709990053.

[13]    ‘Accord de coopération en matière de défense entre la République française et la République du Niger’, firmato a Parigi il 24 aprile 1961, riprodotto in ‘Accords de coopération signés par la France avec la Côte d’Ivoire, le Dahomey et le Niger’, Journal Officiel de la République Française n. 69, 23 marzo 1963, https://afriquexxi.info/IMG/pdf/accord_france_niger_1961_0_.pdf.

[14]    Le cinque aree elencate sono state delineate in un’intervista inedita a Mamane Sani Adamou dell’Organizzazione Rivoluzionaria per la Nuova Democrazia (ORDN) – Tarmouwa, condotta da Mikaela Nhondo Erskog, il 9 settembre 2024.

[15]    ‘Accord de coopération’, 4, traduzione nostra.

[16]    Gordon Cumming, ‘French Aid to Africa: Towards a New Consensus?’, Modern & Contemporary France 4, n. 4 (1° gennaio 1996): 453-62, https://doi.org/10.1080/09639489608456334; Bocar Diagana et al., ‘Effects of the CFA Franc Devaluation on Urban Food Consumption in West Africa: Overview and Cross-Country Comparisons’, Food Policy 24, n. 5 (1° ottobre 1999): 465-78, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-9192(99)00060-3.

[17]    IMF, ‘Background Information from the Study Guide to The Fabric of Reform – An IMF Video’, consultato il 12 giugno 2025, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fabric/backgrnd.htm.

[18]  Abdoulaye Maïga, ‘Speech at the General Debate of the 79th Session of the United Nations General Assembly’, 28 settembre 2024, New York, https://gadebate.un.org/sites/default/files/gastatements/79/ml_fr.pdf, traduzione nostra.

[19]  Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research, Defending Our Sovereignty: US Military Bases in Africa and the Future of African Unity, dossier n. 42, 5 luglio 2023, https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/dossier-42-militarisation-africa/; Malak Altaeb, ‘What’s Next for Libya’s Great Man-Made River Project?’, Middle East Institute, 10 agosto 2022, https://www.mei.edu/publications/whats-next-libyas-great-man-made-river-project.

[20]  [12] Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research, Defending Our Sovereignty.

[21]  [13] ‘Letter from Republic of Mali to UN on French Aggression and Support for Terrorism in Region’, Black Agenda Report, 24 agosto 2022, http://www.blackagendareport.com/letter-republic-mali-un-french-aggression-and-support-terrorism-region.

[22]  [14] ‘Areva in Niger: Who Is Benefiting from the Uranium?’, Oxfam International, 21 agosto 2014, https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/areva-niger-who-benefiting-uranium.

[23]     [1] ‘Thousands Rally in Mali to Protest against Ethnic Violence’, Al Jazeera, 5 aprile 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/4/5/thousands-rally-in-mali-to-protest-against-ethnic-violence.

[24]    ‘UN Finds French Strike in Mali in January Killed 19 Civilians; France Refutes Report’, France 24, 30 marzo 2021, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210330-un-probe-finds-french-strike-in-mali-in-january-killed-19-civilians.

[25]    ‘Deaths in Niger as Protesters Confront French Army Convoy’, Al Jazeera, 27 novembre 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/27/three-killed-in-niger-as-protesters-confront-french-army-convoy; Andrea Carboni, ‘Regional Overview: Africa 8-14 December 2019’, Armed Conflict Location & Event Data, 16 dicembre 2019, https://acleddata.com/2019/12/16/regional-overview-africa-8-14-december-2019/.

[26]    Kent Mensah, ‘Africa’s Coup Epidemic: Has Democracy Failed the Continent?’, Al Jazeera, 23 settembre 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2023/9/22/africas-coup-epidemic-has-democracy-failed-the-continent.

[27]     [5] AJLabs, ‘Mapping Africa’s Coups d’etat across the Years’, Al Jazeera, consultato il 27 dicembre 2024, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/30/mapping-africas-coups-detat-across-the-years.

[28]    Theodore Murphy, ‘Middle Powers, Big Impact: Africa’s “Coup Belt,” Russia, and the Waning Global Order’, European Council on Foreign Relations, 6 settembre 2023, https://ecfr.eu/article/middle-powers-big-impact-africas-coup-belt-russia-and-the-waning-global-order/.

[29]    ‘Democracy is Like Rice. We Need to Grow It Ourselves: The Twelfth Pan-Africa Newsletter (2024)’, Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research, consultato l’11 giugno 2025, https://thetricontinental.org/pan-africa/newsletterissue-niger-conference/.

[30]    Ebenezer Babatope, Coups: Africa and the Barrack Revolts (Ibadan: African Books Collective, 1981); Samuel Decalo, ‘Modalities of Civil-Military Stability in Africa’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 27, n. 4 (1989): 547-578; Godfrey Mwakikagile, Military Coups in West Africa Since the Sixties (New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2001).

[31]    ‘Il popolo del Niger vuole rompere la rassegnazione’, 33° Newsletter di Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research, consultata il 30 dicembre 2024, https://poterealpopolo.org/niger-intervento-militare/. Per ulteriori informazioni sulla vita di Traoré, si veda Jack G. Kraft, Ibrahim Traoré: The Youngest Leader of Burkina Faso: From Military Officer to Interim President (Independently published, 2025).

[32]  Effred Mouloul Al-Hassan, osservazioni ascoltate dagli autori alla Conferenza internazionale in solidarietà con i popoli del Sahel, Niamey, Niger, novembre 2024.

[33]  Ministry of Economy and Finance, Mali Kura Ɲɛtaasira Ka Bɛn San 2063 and National Strategy for Emergence and Sustainable Development (SNEDD 2024-2033) (Bamako: Government of Mali, dicembre 2024).

[34]  Ministry of Economy and Finance, Mali Kura Ɲɛtaasira Ka Bɛn San 2063; Ministère de la Refondation de l’État, République du Mali, ‘Programme National d’Éducation aux Valeurs’, Bamako, 5 gennaio 2023, https://cdi.gouv.ml/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Programme-National-DEducation-aux-Valeurs.pdf.

[35]  [13] Ministry of Economy and Finance, Mali Kura Ɲɛtaasira Ka Bɛn San 2063, 4.

[36]  Ministry of Economy and Finance, Mali Kura Ɲɛtaasira Ka Bɛn San 2063, 4.

[37]  [15] Ministry of Economy and Finance, Mali Kura Ɲɛtaasira Ka Bɛn San 2063, 22.

[38]  Présidence de la République du Mali, ‘Sanankoroba: coup d’envoi de la construction d’une nouvelle centrale solaire de 200 MWc’, Koulouba, consultato il 12 luglio 2025, https://koulouba.ml/sanankoroba-coup-denvoi-de-la-construction-dune-nouvelle-centrale-solaire-de-200-mwc/; Présidence de la République du Mali, ‘Communiqué du Conseil des Ministres du jeudi 02 mai 2024’, Koulouba, consultato il 12 luglio 2025, https://koulouba.ml/communique-du-conseil-des-ministres-du-jeudi-02-mai-2024/.

[39]  Ministry of Economy and Finance, Mali Kura Ɲɛtaasira Ka Bɛn San 2063, 14; Joy Chukwu, ‘Mali Takes Full Control Of Yatela Gold Mine From Foreign Companies’, West Africa Weekly, 20 ottobre 2024, https://westafricaweekly.com/mali-takes-full-control-of-yatela-gold-mine-from-foreign-companies/.

[40]  Bloomberg, ‘Mali to Get $1.2bn from Miners after Talks’, Mining Weekly, consultato il 16 giugno 2025, https://www.miningweekly.com/article/mali-to-get-12bn-from-miners-after-talks-2025-01-13.

[41]  Bruno Venditti, ‘Ganfeng Begins Production at Goulamina Lithium Mine in Mali’, Mining, 26 dicembre 2024, https://www.mining.com/ganfeng-begins-production-at-goulamina-lithium-mine-in-mali/.

[42]    World Bank, Macro Poverty Outlook: Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, DC: World Bank, ottobre 2024) https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook/mpo_ssa, 66.

[43]    Institute for Economics & Peace, Global Terrorism Index 2024: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism, Sydney, febbraio 2024, https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/GTI-2024-web-290224.pdf.

[44]     [3] ‘Internal Displacement in Africa Triples in 15 Years since Landmark Treaty to Address It’, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, consultato il 20 dicembre 2024, https://www.internal-displacement.org/news/internal-displacement-in-africa-triples-in-15-years-since-landmark-treaty-to-address-it.

[45]     [4] Antony Sguazzin and Katarina Hoije, ‘Niger’s Military Junta Ditches America and Courts Russia’, Bloomberg, 19 marzo 2024, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2024-03-19/next-africa-us-right-to-operate-drone-base-in-niger-terminated-by-junta.

[46]     [5] Kester Kenn Klomegah, ‘The Alliance of Sahel States: Implications, Challenges and Prospects in West Africa’, Modern Diplomacy, 17 settembre 2024, https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2024/09/17/the-alliance-of-sahel-states-implications-challenges-and-prospects-in-west-africa/.

[47]     [1] Harvard’s Atlas of Economic Complexity, ‘Growth Lab’, consultato il 10 giugno 2025, https://atlas.hks.harvard.edu/explore.

[48]     [2] Harvard’s Atlas of Economic Complexity, ‘Growth Lab’.

[49]    Team of the Official Website of the President of Russia, ‘Meeting with Interim President of Burkina Faso Ibrahim Traore’, President of Russia, 29 luglio 2023, http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/71838.

[50]    Si veda Hyper-Imperialism: A Dangerous Decadent New Stage, Studies on Contemporary Dilemmas n. 4, 23 gennaio 2024, https://thetricontinental.org/studies-on-contemporary-dilemmas-4-hyper-imperialism.

[51]    Peoples Dispatch, ‘The Anti-Imperialist Upsurge in the Sahel Is Irreversible, Say Leaders at Historic Conference in Niamey’, Peoples Dispatch, 19 novembre 2024, https://peoplesdispatch.org/2024/11/19/the-anti-imperialist-upsurge-in-the-sahel-is-irreversible-say-leaders-at-historic-conference-in-niamey/.

[52]    Peoples Dispatch, ‘The Anti-Imperialist Upsurge in the Sahel Is Irreversible, Say Leaders at Historic Conference in Niamey’, Peoples Dispatch, 19 novembre 2024, https://peoplesdispatch.org/2024/11/19/the-anti-imperialist-upsurge-in-the-sahel-is-irreversible-say-leaders-at-historic-conference-in-niamey/.

[53]    Team of the Official Website of the President of Russia, ‘Meeting with Interim President of Mali Assimi Goïta’, President of Russia, 29 luglio 2023, http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/71842.

[54]    Steve Lalla ‘Burkina Faso’s President Traoré Delivers Anti-Imperialist Speech at Russia–Africa Summit’, MR Online, 5 agosto 2023, https://mronline.org/2023/08/05/burkina-fasos-president-traore-delivers-anti-imperialist-speech-at-russia-africa-summit/.

[55]    ‘Le sort des Etats de l’Alliance du Sahel ne se décidera pas dans les capitales occidentales (Abdoulaye Diop)’, consultato il 30 dicembre 2024, https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/afrique/le-sort-des-etats-de-lalliance-du-sahel-ne-se-décidera-pas-dans-les-capitales-occidentales-abdoulaye-diop-/3262012, traduzione nostra; Christina Glazkova, ‘Future of Sahel Is Now Decided by Its People, Malian Foreign Minister Declares in EU’, Sputnik Africa, 28 giugno 2024, https://en.sputniknews.africa/20240628/future-of-sahel-is-now-decided-by-its-people-malian-foreign-minister-declares-in-eu-1067286390.html; Peoples Dispatch, ‘“A Slave Who Cannot Assume His Own Revolt Does Not Deserve to Be Pitied,” Says Ibrahim Traoré of Burkina Faso’, Peoples Dispatch, 2 agosto 2023, https://peoplesdispatch.org/2023/08/02/a-slave-who-cannot-assume-his-own-revolt-does-not-deserve-to-be-pitied-says-ibrahim-traore-of-burkina-faso/.

[56]     [8] Oluwasegun Sanusi, ‘Demonstrators March, Picket Western Embassies in Ouagadougou, Accra, London, Paris in Support of Ibrahim Traoré’, West Africa Weekly, 1° maggio 2025, https://westafricaweekly.com/demonstrators-march-picket-western-embassies-in-ouagadougou-accra-london-paris-in-support-of-ibrahim-traore/.

[57]    Vijay Prashad, ‘Come leggere il cambio di governo in Siria’, 51° newsletter di Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research, 19 dicembre 2024, https://poterealpopolo.org/cambio-governo-siria/.